Kali refers to the black ferocious goddess in Hindu mythology. As a consort of Siva, she is associated with wild, terrible and destructive behavior often threatening the stability of the cosmos.1 For many scholars and texts, Kali is also connected with Kala or Time.2 But what does Kali mean for anonymous people writing or publishing popular village literatures in Bengal? While there have been several interpretations and descriptions written on Kali in academic books, journals or magazines, there is little significance given to the representation of deity in village literatures of Bengal.
In this paper, I will examine the tone of some songs from regional literatures like Shyama Sangeet in order to identify the relationship between the goddess and the devotee. I observe that in some of these songs there is a reluctance expressed by the devotee in worshipping Kali in temples. Rather one can examine that the tone of these songs requests the goddess to appear before the devotees. I begin with my visit to Belur Matha in Kolkata where I purchase village literature from the book stalls outside the campus of Belur Matha.
I will further translate two Bengali stories from the local readings called Moondo Kaata Bhoot or Chopped Head Ghost and Bhooter Kaando or Ghost Episodes. The aim of the translation is to show the influence of Kali in these literatures which presents a satire on regional political and social concerns in villages of Bengal. I will conclude by arguing that Kali and Kala are two distinct words and the ferocious deity in village literatures is associated with complex social issues, humor and faith.
Worship of Kali depicted in village literatures- Shyama Sangeet and Shyama Sangeet O Ramprasadi Sangeet
Early in January of 2012 I visited Belur Matha in Kolkata with the intention of studying it. Belur Matha is the headquarters of Ramakrishna mission located over the banks of river Hooghly in the north eastern part of Kolkata. Ramakrishna mission is a body of people who are considered to be the devotees of Saint Ramakrishna and students of Swami Vivekananda. One can associate Vivekananda as a youth icon of modern India and also an obedient disciple of Ramakrishna.3 His written works, for example ‘To the Youth of India’ and ‘My Life and Mission’ published by Advaita Ashrama indicate that Ramakrishna’s teachings greatly inspired him to work for the welfare of the people in the fields of education, social service, humanitarian service and most importantly propagating the doctrines of Advaita and Vedanta in India as well as abroad. His master Ramakrishna was known as the chief priest of Kali in the Dakhineshwar temple who addressed Kali as the ‘Divine Mother.’4
The information I mentioned above was the only knowledge that I had collected after engaging in a conversation with my grandfather. The information he gave me was largely popular knowledge and in order to collect some more data I went to Belur Matha to spend some time reading more about such eminent figures. I reached the place at 3: 30 pm and observed a large number of people which comprised devotees, general visitors, tourists and monks in front of a large blue gate of the institution, waiting impatiently for the gate to open. I gathered from the security guards of the Belur Matha that visitors were permitted to enter only after 4 pm. I had almost thirty minutes to kill but I thought of utilizing the time by exploring the street outside the Matha where common people amassed around the stalls and involved themselves in bargaining, buying and selling of articles. There were four stalls that sold tea, puffed rice and reading materials such as local literature and books. Out of four stalls, two sold books and regional literature.
My attention was focused on the local reading materials which had colorful sketches and pictures of Kali. I picked up a reading which was a compilation of songs dedicated to the goddess. The name of the work was Shyama Sangeet printed by Akshay Library. The book of songs compiled by Guhoresh Choudhary did not mention on print the names of the singers and composers of the songs.5 On the basis of the smudges of the print in the pages, one could remark that the printers functioned on low budget. In spite of the low quality print, the publication had a number of readers as I saw people engaging in bargaining, buying and selling these readings.
Fortunately I did not have to involve myself in arguments with the sellers because I could afford them. I bought a couple of materials, each costing not more than Rs. 12- 15. I looked at the cover of Shyama Sangeet which had a picture of the goddess portrayed explicitly naked with disheveled hair and blood trickling from her mouth, holding a bloody sword (which appeared more like the tool used by peasants or villagers in farming) and severed head, wearing a girdle of severed arms, with her right leg stamping the corpse like body of Siva. The picture also had two snakes surrounding Siva’s body, blazing fire, a jackal, bones and skull.
There were a number of songs in the book called Shyama Sangeet. The meters, suras and talas were mentioned in the beginning of every song. It had suras like Ramprasadi sura and talas like ektala, jhaptala, aratheka, dharma, khemta, dadra, and so on mentioned in Bengali. I would like to draw your attention to one of the songs given in the reading Shyama Sangeet.
This song has the svara called Mishri Bhupali known as dadra. In this song the anonymous singer or composer addresses Kali as Generous Shyama.6 He notes that the generous Mother must give him a visit at last so that he is able to give salutations to her by touching her feet. He elaborates that he has been wandering in search of her but now he wants her to come and finally give him a visit. He further continues that if she visits him then he would bow down, touch her feet as salutations and carry her over his head and take her to a pilgrimage called Kalitirtha.
While translating it I became interested in the tone of the song. Although it is difficult for one to identify the tone of the song but I recognized that there is a tone of craving expressed by the singer/composer. I observe that Kali who is also known as Shyama has been projected as a mother who might possess some supernatural powers but above all there is an expression of craving by the devotee. The craving seems to suggest that he wants her to visit (not necessarily as a Goddess) and like any obedient son he would touch the feet of mother. Hence there is an emphasis on the mother and son relationship in the song.
On the basis of this observation we can argue that a devotee does not need to visit the goddess in temples like Dakhineshwar but the goddess appears before him or her. Meanwhile the devotee wanders in search of her in several places (not necessarily the temples) by uttering her name or singing songs in praise of her. But one can also assert that if the devotee is wandering in search of her, it implies that he has to visit her rather than the goddess appearing before him?
I would like to answer this question by pointing out a song sung in another book, which I purchased from the book stall called Shyama Sangeet O Ramprasadi Sangeet. This work is also compilation of songs by Apurva Goswami, published by Sandhya International.7 The book contains songs by Pannalal Bhattacharya and Ramaprasad.8 There is a name of one song out of the list of songs composed or sung by Pannalal addressing Kali. The title of the song is Mondire Tore Khoonjbo Naa or its translation in English means ‘I do not want to find you in the temple.’
In this song there is a mention of Mishri Raga and also the local artist named Ujjwal Biswas who has done the narration and the regional singer called Satya Dev who has performed the singing earlier. In other words the publishers also indicate that the composition can be sung as well as narrated. In this composition (if one has to paraphrase it), Bhattacharya addresses the goddess by asserting that he does not want to find her in the temple. Rather he would prefer to hold her in his mind. He mentions that he feels satisfied by holding her in his mind.
Bhattacharya expresses that till the last days of his life he would continue worshipping her. He also remarks that he has been able to forget his tension by having her feet for worship. By having her for worship, as the composer observes, the ropes in his heart are being untied by the goddess. Pannalal further continues by expressing her gratitude that his devotion or bhakti is like a flower which is in the form of his soul that has been dedicated in her worship. In the last line he speaks out that he has laid his heart on her feet.
On the basis of the translated paraphrase I would like to point out the reluctance of the composer to worship the goddess in a temple. In fact one might note that his tone insists that the goddess has to come to her so that he can hold her in his mind. Also the observation ‘the ropes in his heart are being untied by the goddess’ explains that the goddess has to visit him and make an effort by untying the ropes and occupy a place in his heart, instead him going in search of her in a temple or any other space. Moreover the cover of the regional literature called Shyama Sangeet O Ramprasadi Sangeet like the book Shyama Sangeet has a similar terrible figure of Kali. But in the case of the picture of the first book, which seems to be drawn by village or local artists portray two saints (one of them would probably be Ramaprasad) wearing saffron clothes and carrying a village musical instrument probably a small dholak.
The sketch also has some huts, trees and a pond with green water depicting some Bengali village. The picture further describes that one does not require going to the goddess but can worship her by playing music on the dholak under a village tree by a pond surrounded by huts. The picture with the laughing Kali at the backdrop of the saints singing songs in praise of her also describes that Kali herself comes to devotees if she feels satisfied with the devotion by the devotees. Hence I claim that a devotee does not need to visit the goddess but the goddess appears before him or her.
Moondo Kaata Bhoot or Chopped Head Ghost- a translation and analysis of a ghost story in a village literature
My engagement with musing and self- conversations about the relationship between Kali and her devotees almost broke when I discovered that the gates of the Matha were open for the people to visit. I decided to join the crowd and enter the Matha. The clean path which took me to the Sri Ramakrishna temple had gardens with lots of flowers and plants on both sides. The clean and well maintained campus set along the Hoogly River in Kolkata had five buildings. These five buildings were Sri Ramakrishna temple, Sri Vivekananda temple, Holy Mother Temple (addressed to Ramakrishna’s wife Sarada devi), Ramakrishna museum and Swami Brahmananda’s temple.9
I got to know from an enthusiastic British tourist studying the construction of Sri Ramakrishna temple that the temple was mainly built of chunar stone and cement.10 The temple had a prayer hall built of several solid stone pillars, a marble statue of Ramakrishna wearing a dark yellow cloth with some fruits and agarbattis as offerings before his statue.11 The devotees were expected to pay salutations to the saint by moving along a circular path or a pradakshina patha.12
I also observed the offices of the monks, Ramakrishna, Sarada Devi’s temple, the Vivekananda temple and Brahmananda’s temple. I also discovered a book store opposite the Ramakrishna temple selling books mainly printed by Advaita Ashrama, functioned by the Ramakrishna temple. The book store had pictures of Ramakrishna, Vivekananda and Sarada Devi hung on the wall. The photographs of Dakhineshwar temple, its devotees carrying offerings like fruits, sweets, flowers and money as donations for worship of the deity Kali but there is no photograph of the goddess itself.13
However I managed to discover a book called Kali- The Mother written by Sister Nivedita and published by Advaita Ashrama. The cover of the book had a photograph of the deity in Dakhineshwar temple that struck me.14 Unlike the description of naked, bloody and terrible form of Kali that I saw in the village literatures being sold outside the gates of the Matha, this book depicted Kali as a goddess wearing richly clad red color saree with lots of jewelry on the body.
The garland of severed heads the deity wears seemed smaller in size or the red sari was so thick and bright that it seemed to cover not only her dark body but also the garland of severed heads. Siva seemed to have taken a marble form in the photograph. However the weapon stained with blood and the red protruding tongue of Kali was maintained in the picture, so much so, that one could identify that the figure symbolizes the naked goddess.15 Otherwise the book had a neat print with no blots or careless printing.
I found only one copy of the book lying in the store. I purchased it for Rs. 12. After buying the book I sat on the grass under a tree overlooking the Hooghly River with boats and steamers sailing on the water. Before I started reading the book Kali The Mother, my attention fell on one of the regional literatures that I purchased outside the Matha. The name of the regional literature was Moondo Kaata Bhoot or Chopped Head Ghost, if the name is translated in English.16 I found the picture given on the cover of the story book funny.
In fact it was the picture on the cover of the reading which drew my focus.17 I would like to draw your attention to the translation of a story called Moondo Kaata Bhoot given in the collection of regional ghost stories known as Moondo Kaata Bhoot. The collection had twelve other stories written by Bengali regional writer called Shri Mahendra Gupta and published by Rajendra Library at Biplabi Rashbehari Bose Road on Canning Street in Kolkata.18 The plot of these stories was based in village and districts of Kolkata.
The translation of Moondo Kaata Bhoot or Chopped Head Ghost is as follows:
Haanshpukur village.
From dharmatala to behala, from behala to thakurpukur, and if one moves further down then he will discover Haanshpukur village.
The incident happened in this village.
I heard this story from the mouth of Poodu Gosain.
This was the incident-
Poodu Gosain was returning from the house of his disciple. The disciple was rich. His name was Bhola Manna. Poodu Gosain was invited by Bhola Manna’s father Mr. Manna for his only daughter’s marriage.
It was late night while Poodu Gosain was returning from the marriage. He was returning alone as he could not find any company. He got a lot of return gifts from the disciple’s home. He was carrying two bags in both the hands. The load of articles which he received from the disciple’s home was stuffed inside the two bags.
The path was dark and empty. In this late night he will walk on the Para village’s path? The path was pitching dark. If only there was a loud sound in this pitch darkness, then people might walk on this path.
He reached the middle path. He was tired because he was carrying heavy bags. There were loads of articles in those two bags which he was carrying. The bags were really very heavy. He was fatigued and so he thought to take a nap in the middle path. After taking some rest he would leave for his home.
He kept his bag on the path.
All of a sudden a person emerged from the ground. Poodu Gosain was amazed to see the person. O! My God! It was such a strange situation. The man did not have a body but was a chopped head person.
Despite having a face, the man could speak. This was even more astonishing. He spoke- “Are you feeling tired, Mr. Priest? Do you want me to carry the bags?”
Poodu Gosain was so scared that he couldn’t utter a word. He kept trembling and staring at the strange appearance.
The chopped head ghost said once again- “I couldn’t see you carrying those bags in pain. Do you want me to carry them?”
He was trembling with fear but somehow he managed to ask him- “Who are you son? Why is your head chopped off?”
The man laughed out loudly. He had a terrible, fearful laughter. His laughter disrupted the complete silence of the night.
But how could he laugh? He doesn’t have a face but where is the smile coming from?
The man spoke- “Why are you getting frightened? I am not going to harm you. Listen Mr. Priest, I am not a human being but a ghost. I died three years ago. Ever since then I am wandering hear like a ghost.”
“Ghost! Danger!”
Poodu Gosain went numb with fright. Ghost! Chopped Head Ghost! Danger!
The Ghost spoke in a harsh voice- “I was a proud reckless dacoit. I used to kill people with my steel weapon every now and then. I cannot recollect the number of people I have put to death. Everyone used to be scared of me. One day a group of boys comprising ten or twelve in number came to me with the intention of killing me. I could recognize all of them. But how could I fight against them single- handedly?”
I asked them- “Why are you going to kill me? What harm have I done to you?
They said- “You think that you have become too smart, don’t you? Today we are going to kill you, you bloody arrogant youth.”
“Why? Why are you going to kill me? I haven’t done any harm to you?
They said- “Yes you haven’t done any harm to us but you have caused a lot of harm to Bosebabu.”
“Who is Bosebabu? Are you talking about Bhoodev Bose?”
“Yes. Yes. We heard that you insulted him very badly? This is the reason for Bosebabu to employ us for killing you. He has given us Rs. 5000 as price for killing you.”
“Are you going to kill me for money?”
“There is no other possible way out?”
“Suddenly they held me with their hands tightly. Someone hit my head with a steel rod. I was killed with one blow. My soul came out of the body. I turned into a ghost.
They were not satisfied with my death. They continued causing harm to my body by chopping of my head. My head was separated from the body.
They finished off their work and went away. But what happened to me?
I became a chopped head ghost.
Since then I have been wandering here and there. My objective is to find those murderers and kill them. But you know what is the funniest part of it Mr. Priest? In all these years I could never find them on this path.”
Meanwhile Poodu Gosain gathered some wits to face the chopped head ghost. He said- “Fine son. Now you please leave as I have to depart for my home.”
The chopped head ghost spoke- “No No. Why would you take so much of pain? Let me carry your bags. You climb up my shoulders. I will carry you home over my shoulders.”
“What is the ghost uttering? He wants me to climb over his shoulders?” said Poodu Gosain to himself.
Poodu Gosain started thinking about a way in which he could skip the proposal. Would he climb up the shoulders of the ghost? But what if the ghost throws him off the shoulder? No, one doesn’t require this luxury. He decided to walk back home.
The chopped head ghost spoke- “No, I see that you are getting scared. Fine I will leave the place at once.”
The chopped head ghost vanished in the air. Poodu Gosain released breath and felt relieved.
On the basis of the above translation, one can gather that the priest Poodu Gosain plays an important role in the short story. The narrator of the story describes in the beginning that the event took place far away from a village called Haanshpukoor, located away from the city. As the opening lines mention “From dharmatala to behala, from behala to thakurpukur, and if one moves further down then he will discover Haanshpukur village.” The village named Haanshpukur is the place where the character of the story Poodu Gosain went to attend the marriage.
One also knows that there is a path in Haanshpukur which connects with another village called Para. In this path depicted as ‘pitch dark’ is the place where the two characters, Poodu and Chopped Head Ghost meet. Both Poodu Gosain and Chopped head ghost are central and the only talking characters in the story. Apart from them a reader can also observe that there is a presence of the narrator in the story. The narration suggests that the incident could only happen in and around villages like Haanshpukur or Para which are located outside the urban parts of the city like ‘dharmatala,’ ‘behala’ or ‘thakurpukur’ as the narrator seems to drive the telling of the story from a city to a village and finally in the ‘pitch dark’ path which connects both the villages known as Para and Haanshpukur.
At the ‘pitch dark’ path, the chopped head ghost was murdered. The form of the chopped head ghost is important because it reminded me of the garland of severed heads which Kali wears. One might be unaware about the intention of the story teller as the narration seems to be bizarre or funny. However the idea of telling a story with the depiction of a chopped head ghost seems to have drawn inspiration from the garland of severed heads. The cover of the book ‘Moondu Kaata Bhoot’ portrays a huge skull attacking a person wearing light saffron kurta and dhoti.
The depiction of the person wearing neat clothes might suggest an observer that the character belongs to a middle or upper middle class. Also the place of the event sketched on the cover with green plants, fields or bushes indicate an isolated path in a village. The sketch of the skull with blood dripping from its thin lolling tongue seems to be much bigger than the entire body of the person wearing saffron clothes. An observer might notice that the skull has been given a lot of emphasis in this book unlike the photograph of the book, Kali The Mother. The photograph on the cover of the book Kali The Mother seems to emphasize Kali in Dakhineshwar wearing a bright red sari. But one can conclude from the depiction of Kali in bright red sari on the photograph that the brightness of the color red and thickness of the sari seems to hide not only her black skin but also drives a person’s attention from the garland of chopped heads.
However the chopped head ghost who might represent the heads severed by Kali gets emphasis in this book. In my opinion the term ‘chopped head’ associates with brutal expressions and imaginations. There is a scene in the reading where the ghost describes the manner in which he was killed while he was leading a life of a dacoit. The killing seems to be important because the death of the dacoit gives birth to the chopped head ghost. It is possible for the narrator to be influenced from the portrayal of Kali with a sharp, steel instrument stained with fresh blood stains caused due to chopping of heads in regional literatures or posters while visualizing and describing the death of the dacoit. Thus iconographic influences of Kali indirectly play a key role in depiction.
If one further analyses the narration of the story, then he might suggest that this local literature is attempting to draw attention of the readers to the ‘garland of severed heads’ which the red sari of the Dakhineshwar Kali seem to hide. The severed head in the story called Moondo Kaata Bhoot can be interpreted in several other ways by the readers. One might also suggest that the chopped head ghost is expressing political or social concerns of the village called Haanshpukur. A person can also point out from the description of the violent killing in the reading that there is unrest in political conditions or law and order in the village.
I would like to describe some other observations that I noticed in the short story. The writer in his narration reveals a sympathetic nature of the ghost. In several writings, an author offers the destructive nature of the ghost in village literatures.19 In this particular story the chopped head ghost expresses his desire for killing the band of men who murdered him but he does not express any intention of killing the priest or any other people.
In fact before he was murdered, as a reckless criminal he killed numerous people but after his death he expressed anger only against those men who murdered him. The appearance of the ghost described in the text might be terrifying but sympathetic in nature. Initially it seems that his proposal of carrying the bags, offering the priest to carry him over his shoulder is a plot to kill him but as one reads the book gradually he discovers that the ghost vanishes in the air remarking – “No, I see that you are getting scared. Fine I will leave the place at once,’’ which means that he didn’t want to kill the priest.
The ghost also likes sharing his tragic account of his death while leading a life like a human being. There is a detailed account of his murder in his conversation with the terrified priest given by the writer. One might examine this conversation as a manner of drawing attention of the readers towards the causes of the people whose heads were severed. In other words the terrible and ferocious nature of Kali is examined by several scholars but none of them have given much account or description of the death of people whose heads hung from the garland on the neck of Kali.
Moreover I observed on the cover photograph of the deity at Dakhineshwar that the hidden severed heads seem to have shrunk in size. Hence a person might insist from these observations that the importance and voices of the people who were chopped have been entirely ignored. The connections of these observations can be made with this story too. Besides one can also note that there impatience in his tone while he expresses, “Since then I have been wandering here and there. My objective is to find those murderers and kill them. But you know what is the funniest part of it Mr. Priest? In all these years I could never find them on this path.”
The quote above from the text might also illustrate that he has been done injustice. It is possible for the unknown writer to convey the message to the readers that the ghost is waiting for justice as he was murdered by a person named Bosebabu who hired few people for Rs. 5000 in killing him. The reason for killing, other than him disturbing Bosebabu, is not specified in the text. In a way it is possible that the chopped head ghost considers killing his enemies is the only way of getting justice as no one seems to listen to him. Perhaps the ghost wanted to tell his story to the priest because he thought the priest could have raised his voice at the court.
It is also possible for the ghost to offer a ride to Poodu over his shoulders because he heard his story, unlike other people who might have escaped the spot or ignored him. Ignoring the chopped head ghost might not have happened because it seems that not many people travelled on the ‘pitch dark’ path at night. In other words not many people saw him to ignore him.
A reader can also assume that it is possible for the ghost to elaborate his detailed account of his death to the priest while he carries him home along the path. One might notice that the ghost does not move beyond the path or maybe being a chopped head ghost his supernatural powers is restricted compared to the other skeleton ghosts or ghosts assuming the bodies of terrible human form, as the author mentions of the ghost speaking to the priest, “In all these years I could never find them on this path.”
The author of this story was able to give voice to a ghost whose head was chopped while he was living like a human being. This incident is definitely a crime. But the goddess Kali, as the deity or image depicts, also killed several people with a blood stained weapon and arranged their severed heads in a garland and hung it from her neck. The image and the iconographic representation of Kali have been examined by several scholars.20 But how many have attempted to trace the origin of those people whom Kali ferociously killed? In my opinion not many have analyzed or studied, as one can observe that the size of the faces hanging from the garland has been shrunk.
One can also illustrate that the myth and stories on Kali might have originated from places like Haanshpukur or Para where such horrifying and terrible criminal activities of chopping people’s head might have happened in some particular time. These incidents might have shaped the destructive nature associated with Kali in mythological narratives. This can be an assumption but there are possibilities of other interpretations too. One must have observed that the conversation happens between a priest who conducts marriages in well established families and the other is the ghost having a terrible appearance with a sympathetic nature.
A person can believe that the narrator brings out a conversation between characters representing different social classes. He might believe that if the priest listens to the chopped head ghost then the voices of other severed heads hanging from Kali’s neck would be heard. A reader can also assume that this mode of storytelling is employed by the author in order to advocate the concern of the severed heads to a priest called Poodu whose status or social position might be similar to temple priests of Dakhineshwar who shrunk the garland of severed heads and hid them against the brightness and thickness of the red sari.
In other words the ethical issue of brutally killing people and wearing them as a garland in the context of Kali must have been completely ignored by priests and devotees. Yet the tone of the story in the end doesn’t seem that the terrified priest would listen and reflect on it, even if one suggests that the assumption given above is the intention of the author, as he expresses relief when the ghost vanishes in the air. Hence the concern of the chopped head ghost went unheard.21
Bhooter Kaando or Ghost Episodes- A translation and analysis of the story in a village literature
I would like to draw your attention to another regional literature I discovered in the book stalls outside the Belur Math. The name of the literature is Bhooter Kaando or Ghost Episodes in English. The work Bhooter Kaando is also a collection of Bengali ghost stories written by Shri Mahendra Gupta. The plots of the stories are set in districts or villages of Kolkata.22 This collection is published by Rajendra Library at Biplabi Rashbehari Bose Road on Canning Street in Kolkata. The price of the book is Rs. 25 which indicates that it is not only meant for lower, lower middle or middle class but by in large the general audience.
The work is also able to collect sponsorship from Shrimad Gupta’s Phool Panjika which additionally helps in functioning of the publication press. Panjika refers to a book containing astrological signs and symbols with the support of mythological figures and depictions. Generally the lower middle class or middle class section of the people in Bengali make important daily decisions on the basis of the data like festival dates and its references given in the Panjika.
The backside of the book has the advertisement of Panjika with depiction of Gods and Goddesses on its cover. The advertisement has a tone of persuasion as well as information which boldly mentions its validity approved by the Government of India. It not only informs the people about its registration with the Government of India but also suggests people to use it on a daily basis.
However my interest lies in the painting done by local artists to inform people that it is a regional ghost literature. The figures drawn and the additional features on the cover seem to resemble the iconographic representation of Kali as terrible goddess or the destructive character of time. On the front cover there is a figure of a terrible, dark, bony woman wearing a white sari with a red border. Her eyes appear fiery with anger. She also has long, disheveled hair.
The local artist or artists have attempted to create some frightening but funny aspects in the painting by adding skulls, bones and skeleton which further communicate to the readers instantly that the books concerns with ghost stories. The drawing also has a man carrying a bag which contains fish. The picture describes the man having a fairer complexion with comparatively well combed hair than the terrible woman. He is shown as well fed man, wearing a clean (or seems to be clean) saffron kurta with white dhoti. The color saffron and the appearance of the man indicate that he belongs to a higher class than the dark terrible lady. Moreover the man is also shown wearing shoes but the woman is portrayed as a terrifying figure with abnormally long bony legs without a pair of shoes. The picture also has a blue river, a broken pot, green trees and grass, a bamboo stick, a naked bony boy clinging to the woman with disheveled hair and frightening eyes which probably also denotes the appearance of a ghost. The drawing also has textures of orange which probably symbolizes late evening or the time of occurrence of the event. One can also argue that the drawing conveys the message of the oppression on the poorer section of the society by the people comprising the middle or higher middle class in Bengal. However a person can also determine from the activity which is depicted on the cover, which is snatching the bag from the man, emphasizes on stealing or robbing activities conducted by poorer section of the people over wealthy middle or upper middle class living in towns and villages.
The collection has eleven stories and the name of the first story is also known as Bhooter Kaando. It is possible that the compilation is named after the first story present in the book or even vice versa. One of the central obstructions in translation is that it alternates or sometimes misinterprets the meaning of the story. However I have attempted a detailed translation of the first story called Bhooter Kaando from Bengali to English, keeping in mind that minimum modifications are made in the process of translation. The translation is as follows:-
I am a publisher by profession. I own a small enterprise which publishes popular novels and story books. My house is on western 24 paraganas (district) biddhannagar. My office is located at College Street. I remember a day when it took me some time to return home from office. The local bus dropped me at aamtala at 12 o’ clock midnight. The moment the bus dropped me at aamtala, I began my search for a rickshaw which would further carry me home. I began my search for a rickshaw but in vain.
Unlike the other days I was surprised to learn the unavailability of the service for rickshaws. I spoke to myself “Every day I am able to get a rickshaw carrying me home. How come I can’t find one today?” I was only left with the option of walking back home on my feet. Although I was tired I walked back home knowing my home was three miles away from the spot. Walking back home without any companion was always terribly boring as well as tiring. My cigarette seemed to be the only companion while returning home walking that particular night. I crossed three villages called Jayarampur, Mamoodpur and Kanyanpur and reached near Neemtala where I noticed a lot of commotion near a field.
“What happened?” I said to myself. “How come so many people have gathered near the field at this particular time of the night?” The gathering made me curious. I decided to learn about the event by standing at one corner of the field. I observed someone announcing in the darkness “Now it is the turn for our chief to speak.” Though the chief was not spotted clearly due to the darkness, his voice was very loud and clear. The chief spoke “My dear brothers and friends! Our authority over this world is similar to the presence of human beings living in this earth. Human beings spent their lives relaxing in this world. They have comfortable homes, big houses and huge mansions, expensive cars and several other things. Hence like human beings even we should have similar cars and homes. We can be referred as ghosts today but there was a time when we lived like human beings.”
I was shocked to know that I was in the company of ghosts and not people. Every member of the meeting heard the chief’s lecture very carefully. The mannerisms of the chief were very similar to our politicians delivering speeches- histrionics, agitated voice and occasionally coughing while speaking. He continued “Therefore I assert… after all why we should drop our assertions? We have to gather cars, houses. After gathering all such requirements we have to make a space for ourselves within the society of human beings. Hence with this note I would like to conclude my speech. I would like all the members to join me in raising the slogan of our meeting.”
Suddenly one of the members in the gathering raised his voice “OUR NEEDS HAVE TO BE HEARD AND FULFILLED”
Following him the rest also joined in- “OUR NEEDS HAVE TO BE HEARD AND FULFILLED.”
“WE NEED CARS, WE NEED HOMES.”
“WE NEED MORE CARS, MORE HOMES AND ALL COMFORTS.”
“LET EVERY GHOST IN THIS WORLD BE UNITED AGAINST THE SELFISH HUMAN BEINGS.”
“LET ALL GHOSTS BE UNITED.”
I might have misunderstood these members earlier as human beings but now I was confirmed that it was a gathering of ghosts. I realized that staying here for some more time might prove to be risky. Is anyone able to free himself if he gets caught by the ghost? If they spot me here they might kill me.
I began to walk fast.
I could see the light of the Kali temple at Neemtala. “O Mother!” I cried and started running.
While I was running, suddenly two ghosts arrived and stood in front of me. I could make out who they were by looking at their faces. They were unclothed. Their hands and legs were very thin. The shape of their heads was like a haandi. There was no presence of skin or mass on their body. Their body comprised of only bones. In other words their bodies resembled the structure of a skeleton.
I asked “Who are you?”
They cried “Don’t you recognize us….we are ghosts?”
“Ghhoooossttt.” I trembled while speaking.
I somehow pronounced the above expression.
One of them said “Why are you getting scared? We won’t harm you but you have to perform a task for us.
“What task do you want me to perform for you?” I expressed with fear.
One of them pushed the other and said “O! Oudo, tell me what are you going to tell him?”
I questioned “Is his name Oudo?”
“Yes and my name is Moukdo. We both are brothers.”
Oudo ordered- “Your work for us is very little. We both are ghosts. As ghosts we are driven away from the comforts of the human society. We are not even able to roam around in the light of the sun and as a result we have to organize our meetings in the nights.
“So what do I have to do?”
Moukdo said “We had a meeting in the cremation grounds of Neemtala. Our leader has declared that we have to rebel against the human society and like them acquire all the comforts for ourselves.”
I was trembling with fear. Yet I spoke “Yes you should, you should. Ghosts are like human beings. Just because you don’t appear to be like humans that doesn’t mean that you are not allowed to voice your demands. You must raise your voice for all sorts of requirements. After all the whole country is meant for ghosts.”
“Stop it!” they remarked.
The remark seemed to be a threat executed by the ghost named Oudo. I was shocked by his sudden execution of his threat. But what was the reason for his threat? I don’t think I have abused him or said anything offensive or bad. In fact I made such a comment so that they feel satisfied. So, what could have been the reason?
Oudo ordered “It’s okay if you have said such a comment. But I warn you, if you utter the same remark once again then we will kill you.”
“Why did I say anything wrong?” I asked.
Oudo said “Why did you say that we are the future? Neither are we the future nor are we the past.”
The order of the ghosts seemed very scary.
I apologized “Fine it was my fault that I made such a statement. Why would you be the future? We human beings are the future whereas you are the ghosts.”
Moukdo- “You are a human being. We decided to meet you because we saw you alone. Now let us talk about the work which we want you to perform. We want you to publish a report of our meeting in newspapers.”
I said “How is this possible? I own a publishing press that prints novels and story books. We do not print newspapers. Besides newspapers do not publish such articles which does not have much evidence.”
The ghosts asked “Why won’t the newspapers publish our demands? They do not have problems against publishing the wants of human beings but how come they have issues against printing our demands?”
I observed their agitation and with fear I replied, “I am sure they will publish your concerns. They will have to publish them. I’ll make sure that the demands of the ghosts in the meeting are printed in the newspaper. If possible I would attempt to bribe them with money. But to sum up, your demands for a comfortable living within the society must be expressed in the newspaper.”
Oudo and Moukdo felt very happy after listening to my enthusiastic comment. They offered “Keep this money with you in case you require bribing the editors of newspapers…”
“No I do not require your money. I will handle it myself. Why would you spend your money? This is my responsibility to ensure that the demands of the ghosts are expressed on the newspaper.
Moukdo replied “How is this possible? Since this is our work, we would have to pay for ourselves.”
Moukdo took out a bundle of notes and handed them over to me. Although it was dark, I could guess that the bundle contained all hundred rupee notes. The bundle was also very thick. What was the amount in the bundle? I guessed that the bundle nearly had a sum of Rupees ten thousand.
Oudo declared “Now let us announce to the human beings that even ghosts have a procession. We must have a procession.”
They uttered the sentence and vanished in the air.
All of a sudden I heard the slogans of the procession of ghosts. The volume of the noise indicated to me that there are numerous ghosts in the procession. Otherwise how is it possible for me to hear such harsh voices?
The slogans raised by them are as follows:
-OUR DEMANDS….
-MUST BE FULFILLED, MUST BE FULFILLED.
-WE WANT, WE DEMAND
-CARS, HOUSES…WE WANT, WE WANT
-THE AUTHORITY OF THE HUMAN BEINGS—
-MUST NOT BE TOLERATED ANY FURTHER…
-CANNOT BE TOLERATED.WILL NOT BE TOLERATED ANY FURTHER
-THIS WORLD IS MEANT FOR GHOSTS.
-LET ALL THE GHOSTS OF THE WORLD BE UNITED.
It seemed to me that the procession was coming towards me. I was so terrified that I started running very past.
While I was running my legs stumbled over an uneven surface and as a result I fell down. The fall hurt me a lot. The fall did not cause much hurt on my body but my mind was badly hurt. This is because the fall resulted in losing the bundle of notes. I tried searching the place I fell down but in vain. I could not understand in the darkness where I dropped the bundle of cash.
I could understand that the procession was coming towards me. I realized that the worth of life was much greater than money. I told myself “I don’t require the money. It will be wise to run away from the place and rescue my life.” Hence I took off from the place.
Next day I enquired about the cash by searching the place. But the effort of searching went for a waste as I could not find the money. I do not think anybody else could spot the bundle of cash.
“O God! “ I cried. “I lost so much of cash!”
The above translation of the short story from the compilation Bhooter Kaando seems to be simple but one does not really understand the intentional characteristics of this mode of storytelling. One can argue that the translation gives a humorous feel than frightening or other features of a ghost story. While I was translating the piece I found the meeting of the ghosts, a conversation between ghosts and the publisher hilarious. There are instances like the procession of the ghosts; the ghost raising slogans like “LET ALL THE GHOSTS BE UNITED” makes the tone of the story funny. The description of the ghosts in the piece is quite similar to the figures on the cover page.
A person can also point out that ghosts giving orders to the publisher is funnily exciting or entertaining. However one does not really know the implications of these texts on the readers. The story and the cover page might appear funny for me but it might be scary or serious for the regular buyers whom I watched buying them in bulk. In my opinion the story as well as the front page cover succeeds in its attempt to visually capture the concerns of ghosts.
The author expresses the concerns of ghost through slogans, politics, and meeting in a field raising their voice against the human society. One can note that such narrative techniques are funny but not very innovative. This is because the ghosts seem to express their demands like the Indian politicians. If they are ghosts and have the ability of vanishing in the air which is supernatural or skills absent in human beings then they must have other specialized techniques in rebelling against human beings. Or else why is it required for them to raise their voice at midnight? It is not necessary for them to accommodate or give much importance to human beings. Instead they are much capable of ruling the world and oppress the human beings.
However one can also argue that the story is a satire of the present day Indian politics where parties, leaders gather with a huge crowd in the middle of the field or road and carry out their own procession. It also reflects other social concerns like bribery which is required in almost every field for the execution of some task. There is an instance where the ghosts give the publisher a bundle of notes so that he takes the initiative in expressing their concerns to the people.
The concern for bribery can also help a reader in observing the selfishness in human beings. One can note the ending of the story which tells us the narrator’s regret of having lost the money while running. It is also mentioned that the narrator visited the field the following morning in order to find the bundle of cash but did not express much concern about publishing the demands of the ghosts on newspapers. Such personality traits of the publisher represent larger issues like selfishness prevalent within the society. But on the other hand one can also suggest that these issues do not concern the author of the piece.
The readers are not given any evidence about the intentions of the author. It is possible for the writer to present the episode on ghosts along the lines of a comedy. Visually, a person can express that the fall of narrator can be imagined as a slapstick comedy. If seen the writing visually then the loosing of the bundle of cash as a result of the fall and searching for it on the following morning might have the characteristics of slapstick comedy. However it also possible for its own readers to read the piece intensely, as if the work is from a talented ghost story writer.
One of the central issues which concern me is the reference of Kali in the work. As discussed earlier the front cover of the book seems to have drawn inspiration from the iconographic representation of the goddess. Moreover the entire episode happens at the cremation grounds of Neemtala in Calcutta. There is also a mention of the light in Kali Temple in the story which the narrator noticed while he was trying to escape the attention of the ghosts in the meeting. He further adds that Kali has been described as ever hungry and sunken stomach.
Such descriptions of the goddess are important because they are relevant in the context and the characters which play a significant role in the work. A gathering and procession of ghosts at the Neemtala cremation ground near the Kali Temple suggests that the presence of the goddess is significant as one can observe that “she lives in the cremation ground, haunts the battlefield, sits upon a corpse, and adorns himself with the pieces of the corpse” (Kinsley 2005, 32). There is also an instance where the narrator refers Kali as ‘O! Mother.’ The role of Kali in this story is important but one does not know whether Kali is the source of strength for the ghosts or a symbol of hope for human beings.
A person can argue that Kali is a source of strength or unity for the ghosts because they could only hold a meeting, procession near the cremation ground and Kali temple. In other words it means that they were permitted to raise their voice or organize meetings and processions nearby places where Kali’s presence is prominent. Moreover it appears that the field was the only space where they could raise their slogans. The two ghosts Oudo and Moudo has also been described by the narrator as ‘without flesh and only bones’ which in a way seems to draw influence from the “hungry looking Kali without stomach” (Kinsley 2005, 32).
There is another manner in which the deity might have its influence on the writer as well as the reader. One can note a remark by the narrator in the story which states “I could see the light of the Kali temple at Neemtala. ‘O Mother!’ I cried and started running.” In this context, a person can also explain that with the presence of light in the temple, Kali symbolizes faith in life and not death or destruction. In other words the publisher as the narrator also draws inspiration from Kali and attempts to rescue himself from the ghosts. In my opinion Kali cannot be addressed as the destruction feature of time always because in this regional literature Kali has also been associated with ‘light’ or faith in life. Moreover it is also important to note that the emphasis of Kali in the context of regional literature, for example in this case the collection of ghost stories known as Bhooter Kaando. It is also possible for the publishers and writers to exhibit Kali as a funny, scary or a ridiculously terrible figure. This is because one is not aware of the intention of the writers or publishers in printing such compilations.
One can believe that Kali has been intentionally ridiculed and probably artists, writers or publishers think that they have the liberty in narrating ghost stories by borrowing symbolic or narrative techniques from the iconographic representation of the destructive goddess. As mentioned earlier one is also unaware of the tone and textures in these regional ghost stories like Moondo Kaata Bhoot or Bhooter Kaando. One can point out that they deal with political and social concerns within the framework of a society. However a person does not understand whether the narratives have features of seriousness, satire, sarcasm or humor.
It is possible that the author is employing such creative skills unknowingly borrowing iconographic representations and symbols from the characteristics of the goddess. There is also a possibility that the significance of these icons and signs of the terrible goddess is unknown to the writer of village literatures. Even if the author or publishers are unaware that they are conveying important issues like signs, icons, symbols and features are associated with the depiction of Kali or the writings are dealing with social and political issues, then they are unknowingly creating innovative ways in reading these literatures or enabling one to reinterpret Kali.
One might argue that the ghosts described in the book Bhooter Kaando depict the political situation in the Indian context which involves leaders, processions, slogans, speeches and meetings. But on the other hand it is also questioning the category or the belongingness of these ghosts to a particular division in the society. Do they denote any particular class of the society? It is possible that these books are trying to identify the identity of ghosts or attempting to find a certain section of the society whose voices have never been heard. Probably the publisher or writer belongs to a certain neglected division of the society who were not given enough opportunity to express their demands.
Commercial aspects of Kali
I would like to conclude my paper by mentioning that Kali has been depicted as ferocious or terrible deity but regional literatures like Bhooter Kaando and Moondu Kaata Bhoot is reinterpreting the notion of Kali by associating her with complex yet humorous notions and faith. Moreover one is not given enough evidence about the influence of the goddess in storytelling. One can also point out that important social or political concerns against the backdrop of Kali, ghosts, chopped head ghost, criminal activities in Haanshpukur village, procession of the ghosts or public meetings, bribery, selfishness and light of the Kali temple are given emphasis in these literatures. However one can also claim that the collection has no serious content or innovation. Its primary concern is to sell these stories by unknown author and make money.
The cover and narrative techniques also reveals humor which suggests that the intention of the publishers is to capture the attention of general audience. If the activity of selling and Kali becomes an important figure for these artists to exhibit their creative skills in these local literatures, then why does one have to associate Kali with important notions like Time or Kala? In my opinion the association of Kali and Kala (Time) is developed by scholars, philosophers, tantric practitioners studying mythology. It is significant to observe the relation people share with Kali. As discussed earlier Kali can also be a figure which is not given much importance in regional literature, except narrating ghost stories or imagining the form of ghosts with the help of iconographic and symbolic representations of Kali.
The intention of the publishers or artists does not seem to specifically project Kali as Time, although there is a mention of fear of death in the above translated piece called Bhooter Kaando. Moreover one can also argue that Kali the black goddess and Kala or Time is two distinct words with different meanings as Kala ‘time’ is a late comer in Vedic literature. This is because it has a definite meaning in certain religious texts as “one cannot assert that it may not have been given a wider sense in the spoken language” (Przyluski 1992, 267).
On the basis of this explanation one can conclude that Siva’s proclamation of Kali as Time is a brahmanic or tantric construct emphasizing on order or disorder following death and sacrifice. It is possible that Kali is not perceived on similar lines by the regional artists, publishers and readers. Hence I would like to observe that it is not required for the black goddess to be connected with Time or Kala because the word Kala has numerous connotations like black, dark goddess, pure, impure, death, fate, wicked person (khalki), serpent or a horse in the Indian philosophy and literature (Przyluski 1992, 267).
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FootNotes
- In mythology Kali is referred to as the violent form of Parvati. As a goddess, Kali is at times addressed as Maha- Kali by her devotees. The goddess is mostly described as having a terrible, frightening appearance. She is depicted in pictures and Hindu texts as black or dark, usually naked and has long disheveled hair. She is adorned with severed heads as a girdle, freshly cut heads as a necklace, children’s corpses as earrings and serpents as bracelets. Moreover she is also described as a deity with claws in hands with long nails and bloody lips. She is mentioned as a goddess drinking blood and surrounded by victims on the battlefield see, David R. Kinsley, Kali: In Encountering Kali-In the Margins, at the Center, in the West, Edited by. Rachel Fell McDermott and Jeffrey J. Kripal (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2005), 23. ↩︎
- One can observe that the terrible deity Kali is associated with Kala which means Time. She is referred to as the destroying character of time. Moreover she is painted in black or dark complexion. Her ferocious image is also depicted on posters or Bengali calendars or “in plates, she is shown as trampling (as the personification of Eternity) on the body of Siva (Time)” see, Subodh Kapoor. A Dictionary of Hinduism (New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 2004). Also in Tantrism Kali is recognized as an important deity. In Mahanirvana- tantra she has been addressed by Siva as the original form of things and the cause of the destruction of Kala or Time see, Kinsley, Kali, 28. ↩︎
- The record of Vivekananda as Ramakrishna’s obedient disciple and a youth icon of modern India are mentioned in a marble tablet placed near the library of Belur Matha. This information is also given on a tablet at Vivekananda’s house gate on 3, Gour Mohun Mukherjee Street in Kolkata. ↩︎
- This information is given in the book Kali- The Mother, see Sister Nivedita. Kali The Mother (Advaita Ashram: Kolkata 2011), 41-80 ↩︎
- The local literature Shyama Sangeet is a collection of songs published by Akshay Library and the name of the compiler is Guhoresh Chowdhury. The date of publication is not mentioned. Yet I would like to mention it in the reference list as this is an important piece of information relevant to my paper. ↩︎
- Shyama Sangeet depicting the picture of Kali refers to Kali as shyama in several places because shyama is the Indian word of the color black ↩︎
- This village literature is a collection of songs published by Sandhya International and edited by Apurva Goswami. However the reading has no year of publication. Yet I would like to mention the reading in references because it is relevant for my analysis. ↩︎
- Ramaprasad is considered to be one of the saints in Bengal who composed and sang folk songs in praise of Kali see, Nivedita, Kali The Mother, 47. Pannalal Bhattacharya was a Bengali singer, singing and composing songs mostly dedicated to Kali see, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannalal.Bhattacharya “as on April 26, 2012.” ↩︎
- Swami Brahmananda is known as the direct disciple of Sri Ramakrishna see, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belur Matha “as on April 20, 2012.” ↩︎
- The name of the tourist was Mr. Robert Miller. He was from London and interested in studying Indian and Muslim architecture in India. He also told me that the design of the building has its influence from the architectures of temple, mosque church in order to symbolize the diversity of Indian religions. A tablet at the entrance of the temple indicates that the construction was undertaken by Martin Burn & Co in the year 1938. ↩︎
- Aggarbattis are known as the candles used in Hindu worship ↩︎
- A pradikshana patha refers to a circular path usually found in Hindu temples, see, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parikrama “as on April 26, 2012.” ↩︎
- I am assuming that these offering were meant for the goddess as Dakhineshwar and Kalighat are known as the abode of Kali in Kolkata. ↩︎
- The black cover of the book with bold print Kali The Mother also had the picture of Dakhineshwar temple with people entering or leaving the stairs. The picture also indicates that people require going to the temple for the goddess, unlike the songs elaborated in the village literature, where the devotee asks the goddess to visit him. ↩︎
- The book also had seven essays written by Nivedita in the book Kali- The Mother are named as ‘Concerning symbols,’ ‘The Vision of Siva,’ ‘Two Saints of Kali,’ ‘The Voice of the Mother,’ ‘A Visit to Dukhineshwar,’ ‘An Intercession’ and ‘The Story of Kali for a Western Baby.’ It also had a poem by Vivekananda at the end of the reading called Kali The Mother see, Nivedita. Kali The Mother, 7. ↩︎
- The regional literature is called Moondo Kaanta Bhoot or Chopped Head Ghost, if the title is translated in English. The book is written by a regional unknown writer called Shri Mahendra Gupta and it is published by Rajendra Library. The date of publication is not mentioned. ↩︎
- I will discuss the picture of the cover of the book Moondo Kaata Bhoot against the photograph of Kali given on Kali- The Mother in the context of severed heads. However the analysis of both the pictures will be mentioned in the discussion of the translation of the story called Moondo Kaata Bhoot. ↩︎
- The date of the publication is not mentioned in the book; as a result I am unable to mention the complete information required. Yet the text Moondo Kaata Bhoot published by Rajendra Library and written by Shri Mahendra Gupta is important for analysis. Thus I would mention the information of the book in the reference. ↩︎
- Regional literatures like Shoshane Bhoot or A Ghost in the cremation ground and Kapaliker Atman or The soul of Kapalika published by Rajendra Library and written by anonymous regional writers depict the destructive, unsympathetic nature of ghosts. ↩︎
- These concerns deals with the scholarly academic issues like Kali as Kala or Kali as Siva’s consort see, Kinsley, Kali,23-38 ↩︎
- If there was a voice raised for those people whose heads were severed by the goddess. ↩︎
- The date of the publication is not mentioned in the book; as a result I am unable to mention the complete information required. Yet the text Moondo Kaata Bhoot published by Rajendra Library and written by Shri Mahendra Gupta is important for analysis. Thus I would mention the information of the book in the reference. ↩︎
