Several changes in international relations were brought about by the conclusion of the Cold War. The first victim was the idea of the bipolar system, which made the globe subject to the influence of two strong blocs. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) also began to wane after that. The Cold War began to come to an end in 1989 with the collapse of Berlin. In 1991, the USSR was disintegrated, ushering in a new chapter in the history of international relations. The Warsaw Pact came to an end with the fall of the USSR. The Baltic, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia regions gave rise to several nations, either peacefully or via civil conflict.
The globe briefly became a unipolar system in the 1990s as a result of all these developments, which led to the US being the only superpower. After the end of the Cold War, international relations have changed in terms of form, structure, and spirit. New players have surfaced, new priorities have been determined, and a new world has started. There have been several shifts on the political and economic fronts at both local and global levels. Economic and trade concerns have become more significant in international relations. International relations were revived into international economic interactions during the post-Cold War era, which saw the emergence of a new economic system. To provide these economic ties official underpinning, the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995.
Promoting a rule-based free trade system was the WTO’s main goal. When it came to building international ties, trade and business took centre stage. Trade routes, regional cooperation, and economic growth were given top priority, and new coalitions were established around these ideas. A few more flaws also came to light. The concepts of human rights protection, environmental preservation, sustainable development, and resolving intraregional and interregional migratory difficulties became global goals. Terrorist groups, multinational businesses, non-governmental organizations, worldwide social movements, alliances, and liberation movements are some of the new actors that have emerged as significant players in international affairs. Due to commercial and security concerns, the US and China are currently engaged in a New Cold War. At the same time, the coronavirus epidemic has shown weaknesses in global politics, and governments everywhere are now prioritizing human security concerns like health.
By closely examining the events leading up to the end of the Cold War, one may gain a wide understanding of the global changes in the post-Cold War era.
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Dissolution of USSR
The USSR disintegrated as a result of both internal and foreign factors. The USSR’s economy had stagnated by the 1980s as a result of the policies implemented in previous decades. In comparison to the demand for consumer products and agricultural production, there was a significant shortage of supply. The state was unable to meet the expanding demand from different industries. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) appointed Mikhail Gorbachev as its Secretary General in 1985. Soon after, he started a “new thinking” that acknowledged that economic might had replaced military might as the most crucial component of security. He rejected the “Brezhnev doctrine,” which maintained that the Soviet Union had the right to step in and defend socialist regimes wherever they may be in danger. Both of these previous strategies have increased financial expenses.
In order to compete with the United States and its Western allies, the Soviet Union prioritized substantial military spending in its Cold War strategies and perception. The defence of the country and its allies accounted for between 40 and 50 percent of its GDP. The Soviet Union’s engagement in Afghanistan was an expensive and depressing affair. One of Gorbachev’s goals was to reconsider the Afghan situation. He started a process known as “restructuring” the economy, or “Perestroika.” The Perestroika policy re-examined military and security agency budgets as well as the long-standing system of material and military support and subsidies to Soviet allies.
However, in order to overcome the structural flaws and backwardness, the “restructuring” of the economy required financial and technology input from theWest. It was difficult to draw in Western money and technology. Gorbachev blamed bureaucratic rigidity for the collapse of the communist paradigm due to underlying economic problems and gaps in the entire policy framework. He advocated for an open dialogue, or “opening,” or Glasnost.
The goal of Glasnost was to provide Soviet citizens with a certain amount of political “opening,” including the ability to criticize and organize political groups. As a result, independent groups emerged in Soviet society that began criticizing the Union’s economic and military shortcomings as well as Communist governance itself. By 1989, protests demanding more freedom had spread throughout Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, three Baltic republics, proclaimed their independence. In order to quell these uprisings, Gorbachev declined to give the communist regimes in these nations’ military assistance. The USSR was eventually dissolved in 1991 as a consequence of democratic and freedom aspirations among the socialist states that made up the USSR.
Fall of the Berlin Wall and Germany’s unification
The collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989, which had physically and politically split East and West Germany since 1961, was another important event that signalled the end of the Cold War. The West Germany, also known as Federal Republic of Germany, was part of the Western alliance system, while East Germany (German Democratic Republic) was a member of the Soviet bloc. Germany was split along ideological lines, symbolizing the Cold War between the blocs of capitalists and communists. The effects of Glasnost quickly extended to the Baltic area, Eastern Europe, and particularly Eastern Germany.
US President Ronald Reagan urged Gorbachev to “tear down the Wall” at a speech on June 12, 1987, at Berlin’s Brandenburg Gate. In the aftermath, a number of major political and economic changes took place. Poland’s 1989 elections saw the loss of communist parties, and Hungary underwent political and economic reforms that allowed it to expand its boundaries with neighbouring Austria. East Germany’s transformation was sparked by these developments. The government was under pressure to relax some of its restrictions on travel to West Germany as a result of the escalating civil unrest in East Germany. The subsequent events made it possible for thousands of Germans from both sides of the Berlin Wall to come together and destroy it, leading to Germany’s unification.
Romania and Bulgaria had violent regime changes, whereas Czechoslovakia underwent a calm transition to democracy in the weeks after the collapse of the Wall. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan are among the roughly fifteen sovereign nations that emerged from the collapse of the USSR in 1991. The former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was split up into autonomous nations including Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro as a result of the intense ethnic hostilities.
During the post-Cold War era, a number of new countries emerged in different regions of the world, albeit under distinct conditions. South Africa separated from Namibia in 1990. When Namibia was under German rule, it was referred to as South West Africa. The Republic of Yemen was established in 1990 after North and South Yemen were united. Czechoslovakia was broken apart in 1993 to form the Czech Republic and Slovakia, two separate countries. After a thirty-year conflict, Eritrea separated from Ethiopia. The year 2002 saw the independence of East Timor from Indonesia. In 2008, Kosova unilaterally proclaimed its independence from Serbia, while South Sudan peacefully broke away from Sudan in a vote in 2011.
There were some political and economic curiosity and conjecture among the nations and regions when these new states appeared on the international map. The UN’s membership grew once they were added. The UN agenda was expanded by these new countries to include new topics for discussion and decision. The demands for aid and investments from global financial organizations, particularly the World Bank and the IMF, intensified as a result of the dissolution of the Socialist bloc and the emergence of several new countries. The geopolitical ramifications turned out to be quite significant.
In a multipolar world, the resource-rich Central Asian region has become a crucial strategic area for international military and energy security. Geopolitical experts started discussing the “new great game” due to its strategic location at the intersection of China, Russia, Turkey, Iran, India, and Pakistan. The term “New GreatGame” is frequently used to describe this. Due to their lack of a sea outlet, these governments are susceptible to pressure from their neighbours, particularly Russia, through whom the majority of the current oil pipelines and trade routes pass. In an effort to reduce their reliance on Russia, they look to their neighbours for other transit options. In addition to the necessity for economic and technological support, these governments are persuaded to welcome the US and other Western powers because they want to lessen the influence of these neighbours. Technology is influencing the geopolitics of Central Asia.
China’s “Belt and Road Initiative (BRI),” a massive effort to construct infrastructure connecting China with Europe, is centred on Central Asia. The “old great game,” which pitted imperial Britain against Czarist Russia, is being revived as the “new great game.” Halford John Mackinder, a British geopolitical expert, put out his “Heartland” thesis in 1904, contending that whomever dominates the Eurasian landmass, or “heartland,” had the capacity to “command the world.” The fall of communist governments in Eastern Europe and the breakdown of the USSR also signalled a global upsurge in democratic political environments, particularly in newly established republics. In every facet of life, values like freedom and democracy were highlighted. Aspirations for democratic political control were also continuously rising in non-democratic regimes. The Western concept of economic development, which was heavily inspired by the ideas of free market capitalism, decided that the majority of the newly constituted nations needed economic changes since they were underdeveloped.
As a result, free market economies and liberal democracies emerged as the dominant political and economic structures. Therefore, the expansion of free market capitalism and democracy with a focus on elections, human rights, etc. was the fundamental feature of the post-Cold War international order.
Increasing Economic Interdependence
Economic globalization accelerated at the same time when the Cold War ended and the socialist ideology and alliance collapsed. The fast expansion of international commerce and economic ties, the strengthening of interdependence, and significant advancements in information and communication technology are all signs of globalization. These advancements led to the creation of a new idea known as the “global village,” as new web-based connectivities were made possible by the interconnectedness of production, trade, and communication.
Due to the worldwide character of this interconnectedness process and its dissemination across social, cultural, economic, technical, and political spheres, also became known as globalization. New players have emerged in international relations as a result of globalization. Multinational corporations (MNCs), NGOs, and other non-state organizations are frequently among these new players. These players now play a significant part in deciding how nation states relate to one another. They are less responsible and global, motivated by free trade and entrepreneurship.
Features of the Post-Cold War Period
The post-Cold War international system has a few key features. Even yet, the Cold War era produced a bipolar world in which state behaviour was predictable and international system players supported state behaviour. In this sense, stability and the status quo were delivered to the international system throughout the Cold War era. With the US as the only superpower and the head of liberal democracy and free capitalism, the collapse of communism left the globe unipolar. Capitalism and communism were the two main philosophies that split the Cold War international order. This ideological gap ended after the conclusion of the Cold War. Therefore, the dominance of free market capitalism is the first feature of the post-Cold War era. Now it has been viewed as a crucial instrument, strategy, and way to establish socialism or communism in order to accomplish economic progress. However, it has now shifted to accept capitalist ideology.
The end of the Cold War is often seen as a sign of democracy and personal freedom. These liberties include political, social, cultural, and economic ones. All of these liberties must be backed with rights.Political institutions, which are essentially democratic, should uphold both freedoms and rights. According to Samuel Huntington, the emergence of the “third wave” of democracy was the second feature of the post-Cold War era. In its most basic form, liberal democracy expanded to South East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Africa, and Latin America. There were other “colour” revolutions in East European nations, including “pink,” “blue,” and others.
The “Arab spring” blossomed across the West Asian area in 2010. Elections were held for the first time in many nations; democratic governments took office and served out their terms without being overthrown by a military coup; new constitutions were drafted; the judiciary gained independence and the rule of law prevailed; the right to vote was extended in the majority of nations to include women, indigenous people, and marginalized and excluded segments of society; and democratic institutions were established that functioned.
The fast expansion of international trade is the third feature of the post-Cold War era. A rule-based international trade regime emerged with the establishment of the WTO. The nations were able to establish economic ties and gain independence thanks to the growth in international commerce. Economic contacts between private actors have been made possible by this quick departure from conventional relations, which were centred on exchanges between governments. International banking and business interests become very significant economic actors. Other conventional concerns, such as border security and defence, have been eclipsed by foreign economic connections. The strict borders between the nations have been loosened by increased international commerce, which has also made it possible for capital, people resources, and products to freely move between them, creating new connections.
The emergence of new players, primarily non-state actors, is the fourth significant aspect of the post- Cold War era. These non-state actors are not governed by the state and have no nationality or state identity. Amnesty International and Greenpeace are two examples of international non-governmental organizations that have formed to promote certain causes, such as environmental and human rights protection. Numerous connections between the states and non-state players were made possible by the advent of these non-state entities.
These connections bolstered the “cobweb paradigm” for comprehending international interactions. The concept of “international relations looking like a cobweb” highlights transnational relationships that are backed by a variety of civil society groups and multinational enterprises that are unrestricted by the realist notions of national interest and sovereign state, hence creating new forms of international society. The non-state actors emphasize their own personal and communal interests over the interests of the country in their interactions. In this case, the state acts in a supporting capacity rather than on its own. As a result of these numerous connections at various levels, the term “international relations” gradually but steadily gives way to “world relations” when discussing the phenomena and its outcomes.
The shift in attention from global to regional concerns is the fifth feature of the post-Cold War era. Human migration and environmental challenges were among these interests. These interests are widespread in nature and have a significant influence on human society. Priority areas in state activities now include identifying, comprehending, and working together to address the challenges. These problems, like the COVID-19 pandemic, need a great deal of coordinated work at the regional and international levels. They even call for the establishment of regional organizations to combat these new kinds of unconventional security threats. Common interests have supplanted state interests, and states have become part of collective actions at regional and global levels. As a result, the states began formulating policies in accordance with this collective action and began to view their national interest as a component of the shared interest.
Proactive organizations that are global and detached from theinterests of a particular state are necessary for identifying, comprehending, and coordinating states to accomplish shared objectives. Therefore, the significance of international organizations like the United Nations, WTO, etc. is the sixth crucial aspect of the post-Cold War era. These international organizations have seen extraordinary development and ascent in the post-Cold War era, and their significance has expanded quickly. These multinational organizations have a global and regional reach and address one or more concerns. As a result, regional organizations and attempts for regional collaboration on many topics have become increasingly important. At the regional level, these efforts address everything from trade facilitation to security, the environment, and migration.
The post-Cold War discourse on international affairs has been altered by all of these features. Along with the profound structural shifts brought about by the end of the Cold War, international relations now face a certain amount of uncertainty and unpredictability. The state-to-state ties at this time were likewise more intense and active. There are also new kinds of gatherings and discussions, such the G- 20 and BRICS, where leaders get together to talk about important regional and global concerns. As more players began to participate in state-to-state relations, they began to have an impact on state policy. The notions of “sovereignty,” “national interest,” “hard borders,” and so on have weakened and become fragile. Many academics began to doubt the notion of a “Westphalian” nation-state as a result.
Key Concerns in International Relations After the Cold War
i) Ethnicity and Conflict: In the newly independent nations, ethnicity-based tensions and violence steadily increased after the USSR’s dissolution. In the former Yugoslavia, an ethnic conflict divided the nation into many autonomous entities and claimed a significant number of lives. In the former Soviet bloc, several ethnically motivated separatist movements, particularly in Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, engaged in such conflicts. Violent ethnic conflicts have steadily increased in other nations and areas, such as South Sudan, East Timor, Sri Lanka, and Catalonia. Ethnic, sectarian, and tribal conflicts and wars have engulfed African nations including Angola, Cyprus, Somalia, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Algeria, Nigeria, and others. Large-scale acts of brutality, genocide, and crimes against humanity have resulted from these wars. Peace restoration and the installation of stable democratic administrations continue to be difficult tasks.
The idea of a secular multiethnic nation-state was severely criticized as ethnicity, religion, and culture took centre stage in bringing the people together. States with diverse populations were more susceptible to conflicts based on race, religion, language, tribe, and culture. American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington postulated “The Clash of Civilizations” in 1992, predicting that the main cause of conflict in the post-Cold War world will be disputes along civilizational lines. He maintained that future conflicts may be fought between civilizations rather than between nations. In the post-Cold War era, identity politics has grown to be a significant concern in international affairs. It is believed that internal ethnic and other disputes should fall within the jurisdiction of international bodies and legislation because the majority of them are intra-state in origin. The claim is that the world community cannot stand by while people are killed in the name of their nationality, religion, or tribe. States cannot claim that these are internal affairs of a sovereign state as an explanation.
According to liberal internationalism, the international community must intervene to stop crimes against humanity, genocides, and ethnic cleansing when required. As a result, a set of standards known as “humanitarian international law” was established. The notion of “humanitarian intervention” and the idea of “Responsibility to Protect” (R2P) have become international norms. To shield people and communities from violence and persecution, the concept of “human security,” which basically translates to “freedom from fear” and “freedom from want,” was developed. Following the end of the Cold War, “humanitarian interventions” were made in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and a number of other nations. The UN modernized its procedures, and the UN HumanRights Commission was superseded by the UN Human Rights Council in 2006. Some observers believe that in order for international organizations like the UN to act in these intra-state conflicts, they require a particular mandate. UN peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations, as well as humanitarian initiatives, have had a mixed track record thus far. In several instances, the UN was able to bring about peace between opposing interests and organizations, although this was only after a great deal of suffering and bloodshed.
ii) Growth of Islamic Fundamentalism and Terrorism: The Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan after losing its war there. The growth of Islamic extremism and terrorism is a new danger to peace brought about by the geostrategic actions of the USSR and the USA in the area. In an effort to gain control of the nation, several Mujahedeen factions, who were mostly divided along ethnic and sectarian lines, began to fight one another. Another violent Islamic fundamentalist group, the Taliban, was born during this process of seizing control. Afghanistan’s history began a new chapter with the formation of the Taliban. Many foreign soldiers were transported to Afghanistan to fight against Soviet occupation. Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, a Saudi national, was one such organization. The United States provided training and weapons to al-Qaeda’s international militants. They engaged in combat with the Soviet army in Afghanistan. Many of these terrorist and militant organizations started looking outside of Afghanistan to expand their influence and ideology after the Soviet Union left the country. Al-Qaeda was responsible for the September 11, 2001 terrorist bombings in the United States. Even while there are a number of Islamic organizations, such as the Palestine Liberation Army in Palestine and Hezbollah in Lebanon, their goals were political in nature—that is, gaining independence and sovereignty for the areas in which they operate. A number of groups, including the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), were founded as a result of US and NATO action in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and Syria following the 9/11 attacks and President George W. Bush’s proclamation of a “war on terrorism.” The “war on terrorism” has completely altered the conversation about international relations.
iii) United States’ Hegemonic Attitude: There was some explanation for the predictability and unpredictability of international affairs during the Cold War era. The collapse of the communist bloc made it possible for the United States and its allies to dominate international affairs. The US’s position as the leading proponent of capitalism was undoubtedly broadened by the conclusion of the Cold War to include global security, peacekeeping and enforcement, “war on terrorism,” regime change, democracy promotion, human rights, and other areas. The United States intervened in a number of nations during the post-Cold War era in order to defend democratic regimes and global security. Examples of the aggressive policies of the United States and its allies include the 1991 Gulf War, the US-led NATO operation in Afghanistan following 9/11, the invasion of Iraq without UN approval, and the interventions in Libya and Syria.
iv) Sustainable Development: During the Cold War, economic activity increased, military technology advanced, nuclear programs were developed, and weapons of mass destruction were produced, among other things. There was no room for the idea of an environmentally sustainable industrial order during the Cold War. At best, a small portion of the nations’ military resources went toward reducing emissions and pollution from industrial processes. Additionally, rather than adopting tactics that would alter the industrial process by including environmentally friendly and sustainable technology, the environmental protection groups concentrated more on methods that supported “pollution control strategies.” International relations in the area of environmental conservation were immediately influenced by the end of the Cold War. International venues now frequently discuss global environmental issues. In contrast to the politics of the Cold War era, which prevented nations from uniting to fight for a common cause for a variety of reasons, the post-Cold War ageeffectively identifies these shared issues. The worldwide community has made significant progress in reducing “greenhouse gas” emissions and adapting technology to counteract climate change since the Rio conference in 1992, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris climate agreements in 2015. Significant headway was made in bringing the nations together on a common platform to address environmental challenges in the mid-1990s. The first United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) convened in Berlin in 1995. This gathering, also known as the Conference of the Parties (COP), decided on “Activities Implemented Jointly” and voiced worries regarding the sufficiency of nations’ capacities. This was the first collaborative effort in the ongoing process of global climate action. The concept of sustainable development evolved and became a key objective in both industrialized and developing nations’ economic growth plans. The end of the Cold War has accelerated the process of fostering understanding and cooperation among nations, despite the fact that there are still significant challenges that need to be resolved between industrialized and developing nations.
v) Migrations and Human Rights Concerns: Former communist governments like Yugoslavia, which later broke apart into several sovereign states, experienced severe wars as a result of the disintegration of the USSR. In these battles, ethnic cleansing was a frequent occurrence. Forced relocation, ethnic cleansing, and the issue of refugees and economic migrants are all consequences of severe human rights breaches. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was formed by the UN to punish those responsible for major crimes committed during the Yugoslavian conflicts. ICTY was succeeded by the Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (MICT). In both cases, the war criminals were found guilty. In the post-Cold War era, numerous intra-state and inter-state migrations have resulted from global events such as the war on terrorism, “failed” and “rogue” nations, regime change, and state economic crises. Conflicts in nations like Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Sudan, Somalia, Rwanda, and others have resulted in a significant number of migrants. Addressing the issues of refugees, internally displaced people, and those escaping state violence in order to defend their lives and human rights has emerged as a major global priority.
Fresh outlook and International Cooperation
i) Multilateralism: The growth of multilateralism is one of the most important events that occurred and has had a significant impact on international relations since the conclusion of the Cold War. It describes an alliance of many nations that have decided to cooperate in order to accomplish shared objectives or deal with shared problems. Multilateralism permits nations to create alliances or accept membership on an equal basis without any kind of prejudice. It is therefore opposite to unilateralism. The true essence of multilateralism was evident in the post-Cold War era, even though organizations like the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) constituted the core form of multilateralism during the Cold War and were crucial in reducing Cold War tensions. Examples of the growth in multilateralism at the trade, political, and security levels include the formal establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to institutionalize international trade relations, the conclusion of numerous free trade agreements, such as NAFTA, which saw the free flow of goods, services, and human resources between the member countries, the formation of new organizations and mechanisms, such as the BRICS and Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the creation of other economic initiatives and trade corridors, and the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). These changes have had a major impact on post-Cold War international relations, altered the conversation about polarity generally, and aided in the emergence of a multipolar world. The Cold War’s bipolarity guaranteed the international system’s stability and seamless operation. Bipolarity frequently resulted in agreements between the two superpowers that changed international norms and order. The best illustration of how agreements between the USA and USSR may alter world order occurred during the Cold War. Bipolarity has made it possible for a strong state to affect the actions of relatively weaker states. Conversely, unipolarity illustrates how the strongest state may affect other states’ actions (with or without their consent). This strong state’s activities might not align with current international standards or regulations. For instance, the US’s 2003 invasion in Iraq was a unilateral, unipolar operation by the sole superpower still in existence. In international relations, multilateralism and multipolarity have increased flexibility. Even minor governments participate in trade and other agreements with major countries, frequently on particular matters. According to Miles Kahler, Research Professor-in-Residence and Distinguished Professor Emeritus, School of International Service, American University, multilateralism is “international governance by many.” The significance of international organizations in international relations has likewise expanded as multilateralism and multipolarity have grown.
ii) Strengthening strategies for International Organizations: During the Cold War era, there were a significant number of international organizations. In a way, the UN, World Bank, IMF, and other organizations were victims of the Cold War since the two superpowers’ interests and views affected how they operated and attempted to utilize them to further their own ideological and strategic goals. They were employed as instruments to sway the foreign and internal policies of emerging nations and were viewed as supporters of the ideologies of their Cold War partners. For example, the IMF closely aligned with the interests and objectives of the United States. To comprehend these organizations’ nature and development in international relations, one must comprehend their function. The way that countries see the nature, function, and operation of these institutions has altered since the conclusion of the Cold War. The levels of patterns of interaction between the players, including state and non-state international organizations, are the main emphasis. It is now more crucial to consider new international regimes, institutions, norms of conduct, etc. rather than seeing them via ideological lenses.
iii) Commercial Considerations: The irreversible globalization has made the world into a small society where interactions between the countries are more based on commercial interests. Production, movement and marketing, and consumption of goods and services have become deeply integrated. Today, the globe is integrated in a way never seen before because to investment choices, cross-border financial and technology flows, and the migration of corporate management elite. In the process commerce have become main and important tool in shaping and reshaping the relations between the nations. Commerce has become more important than ever before and foreign policies are driven by the commercial interests. With the end of the Cold War, nations may now speak economics instead of security. The concept of the “market” has formed the post-WTO international order, and accessing the market has taken precedence over strict boundaries and border disputes. Every nation aims to get access to foreign markets because export promotion has become essential to national economic progress. The likelihood of conflict has decreased due to the swift expansion of economic interests. Building new infrastructure links and safeguarding trade routes have become fundamental goals for nations’ actions and policies. These acts and policies have become the new cause of rivalry and hostilities between the nations. Examples of such rivalry and conflict between nations include the South China issue, the increasing militarization of the Indian Ocean, soft loans to African nations, etc.
